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boundary="----=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720" ------=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit Content-Location: http://www.unicorne.org/orthodoxy/liens/principal.htm Links for Orthodox Studies ------=_NextPart_001_006C_01C77865.FBD1F720 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.unicorne.org/orthodoxy/liens/oldbelievers.htm Christology

Ukrainian Orthodoxy
Table of=20 Contents

Old Believers
return to link Index

O= ld=20 Believers in Pittsburgh, P.A.

Torment= s of Old=20 Belifevers

Monastery
Adorned with a = martyr's=20 crown

A New Terror for an Old Faith

Old Believers End Isolation

Old = Believers of Bila=20 Krinitsa 

Russia's=20 Religious Persecutions

Split=20 in the russian Orthodox Church

Paul=20 G. Wigowsky
This=20 is the best site on the Web concerning the Old Believers. Read = Freedom For An=20 Old Believer online.

CNEWA.ORG
A=20 very good history on the Old Believers with many good Orthodox=20 links.

About=20 the "semeiskie"

Reuters News=20 Agency

Lake=20 Baikal
History of the Old Believers in the Lake Baikal = region of=20 Russia.

A=20 Brief History
See=20 their museum and a list of holidays

In=20 Southern Sakhalin Island under Japanese Rule 
Read=20 a novel about old=20 believers=20 by Paul John Wigowsky.

History=20 of Karellia
This=20 is=20 a region in NW Russia and  = part of=20 Finland

Russia=20 Intercessory Prayer Network 
A=20 good site for the latest updates on news about Old Believers; follow through with links and = maps

A=20 Brief History of Old Believers 
A=20 brief history of Old Believers; follow through with flow chart on = Eastern=20 Orthodoxy and overview of world religions.

Costumes 
An=20 interesting exhibit of dresses worn by the women of the Old Believers; = exhibit=20 is from Fairbanks, Alaska.

Pomorie 
Pomorie-=20 a region around Archangel; Old Russian spiritual traditions are saved in = form of=20 books, icons, pictures and manuscripts; this extensive artistic heritage = of the=20 Old Russian Believers is also maintained through a site such as=20 this.

Old = Believers 
return to link Index

Table of Contents
Ukrainian=20 Orthodoxy

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Collection of Old Believer History and = Tradition


Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky

=20

COLLECTION

OF

OLD BELIEVER'S HISTORY

AND

TRADITION

----

Compiled

By

Paul J. Wigowsky

Bilingual Teacher

91 Elementary School

Hubbard, Oregon

----

January 1978

1. Old=20 Believer History
2. Origins=20 and History of Oregonian Staroveri
3. Old=20 Believers in Brazil
4. Life=20 in America
5. Religious=20 Activities and Views
6. The=20 Wedding
7. The=20 Funeral
8. The=20 Spirit World
9. Traditional=20 Material Culture
10. The=20 Old Believers and Public Education
11. Contact=20 with the Law"
12. "The=20 Old Believers and the World of Antichrist"
13. Preface=20 to Robert Crummey's Book
14. Sources
15.=20 Russian=20 Proverbs
16. List=20 of Great Holy Days
17. Origins=20 and Migrations of Russian Old Believers
18. Clothing

OLD BELIEVER HISTORY

In order to fully understand the nature of Staroveri (Old Believer) = society=20 and the reasons behind the Oregon group's migrations, it is necessary to = become=20 acquainted with their basic history. Although Russia dates its = conversion to=20 Christianity from the year 988 A.D., the Orthodoxy did not begin to = establish=20 itself as a church in its own right until a few centuries had passed. Up = until=20 about 1440, Russia received much of the impetus for its faith and the = operation=20 of its church from the Byzantine Orthodoxy in Constantinople. In 1443 = the Tsar=20 declared the Russian metropolitanate independent of the Byzantines, and = shortly=20 thereafter a long era of reform among the clergy was initiated. Several = councils=20 were held to set matters straight among the clergy and laity, the most=20 influential of these being the Stoglav (One hundred Chapters) of 1551, = in which=20 some 100 chapters of reformation were laid down with the provision that=20 disobedience would result in transgressors being forever accursed. By = 1589, the=20 patriarch in Constaninople acknowledged the fact of Russian separation = by=20 himself declaring the Russian patriarch as separate and the See for that = patriarch as being located in Moscow.=20

Despite these efforts and the recognition of the Russians as a third = center=20 of Christianity, by the beginning of the seventeeth century there was = still a=20 widely felt problem with the clergy. (Moscow as the third Rome was a = popular=20 theory at the time.) In the reign of Patriarch Joseph (1642-1652) there = arose a=20 reformist group of clergy whose aims included the restoration of the = purity of=20 the service books and stricter observance of various matters of = spiritual=20 discipline among the clergy generally. This movement was headed by the = priest=20 and confessor to the Tsar Stephan Vonifatiev, and the Archbishop of = Novgorod=20 Nikon. Even though the Russian metropolitanate had nominally been = independent of=20 the Byzantines for two centuries, many of the clergy had been educated = in=20 Greece, and Nikon was one of these. One of the splits which developed = among the=20 reformists concerned the extent to which the older Greek customs and = rites=20 should be adhered to in the new reforms.=20

Upon the death of Patriarch Joseph in 1652, Vonifatiev was lawfully = elected=20 Patriarch, but refused the position. The Tsar Alexei then put Nikon in = his=20 place, contrary to the Church Canons, which forbade the Tsar to have = such=20 influence over the appointment. Apparently no one actively contested the = appointment and Nikon commenced his reign with several reformatory = measures. In=20 1653, he sent a memorandum to the churches in the land which instructed = them in=20 various revisions of the services and the books. These reforms met with=20 opposition from many of the clergy. Among the major points which were = contested=20 were: (1) how many fingers would be used to make the sign of the cross; = (2) the=20 spelling of Jesus' name; (3) whether "Alleluia" should be sung two or = three=20 times; (4) the retention of certain words and phrases in the Creed; (5) = the=20 number of hosts to be used in the liturgy; and (6) whether the priests = should=20 walk around the altar with or against the passage of the sun. These = matters of=20 ritual, seemingly unimportant in themselves, nevertheless were the = embodiment of=20 certain theological precepts and ideological alliances, and hence = stirred=20 considerable controversy upon their arrival. For example, the = conservatives=20 maintained that the sign of the cross with two fingers rather than three = (the=20 latter being the proposed reform) signified the dual nature of Christ, = with the=20 first finger representing the divine nature and the bent second being a = symbol=20 of Christ's descent to Earth for the salvation of humankind. They cited = many old=20 icons to support their position on this matter, in which some of the = saints and=20 Christ could be seen using the two-fingered sign. The three-fingered = sign, on=20 the other hand, was intended as an acknowledgment of the Trinity. But = this was=20 considered by the conservative dissenters to represent Greek heresy. To = make=20 matters worse, many of the clergy felt that strict observance of the = most minute=20 details of the dogmas and disciplines of the church were necessary to = salvation.=20 This was a direct result of the reformatory efforts of the group in = Moscow.=20

Even so, the disputes might have been settled in the course of a few=20 councils, had not Nikon pressed his hand too early and forcefully. He = had his=20 opponents flogged, exiled and even burned at the stake. Among the exiles = was the=20 arch-priest Avvakum, who had been one of the more prominent among the = younger=20 members of the reformatory circle in pre-Nikonian days and had = spearheaded the=20 conservative opposition to Nikon's edicts. He was eventually burned at = the stake=20 in 1682 and until then continued to serve as a spiritual leader for many = of the=20 dissenters. The result of these measures was such a storm of protest, = that Nikon=20 was himself forced to resign his office by 1658.=20

However, his compatriots continued to wield official power, and the=20 persecutions went on in his absence. The Tsar was on the side of the = would-be=20 reformers and began to openly wage campaigns against the conservatives. = After=20 the Council of 1666, in which the Stoglav of 1551 was declared a forgery = and=20 heretical, the Solovetski Monks of the White Sea formed a bastion = against the=20 new tide of reform, and were promptly excommunicated and eventually = replaced=20 with monks from Moscow.=20

Because of actions like the above, some of the dissenters believed = that the=20 age of the Anti-Christ had come and that the end of the world was near. = In the=20 years 1666-1668 numerous fields throughout Western Russia were neglected = while=20 the faithful adorned themselves in burial clothes and awaited the end of = the=20 world in their cemeteries at night, singing hymns and sitting in wooden = coffins.=20 Others set buildings afire where they waited inside to be cleansed and = to perish=20 in the flames so that they might join Christ before the Judgment Day. = Between=20 these and the others who were burned to death by persecutors, it has = been=20 estimated that more than 20,000 Old Believers died between 1672 and 1691 = alone.=20

Partly because most of the prominent conservative clergy perished = early in=20 the movement, and partly because there were not many others who were = courageous=20 enough to risk stepping into their places, the conservatives began to = run out of=20 higher-level clergy, particularly bishops. This posed a problem because = without=20 bishops, there could be no ordained priesthood. Without priests, most of = the=20 sacraments could not be administered and believers were faced with the = prospect=20 of not being able to marry or receive communion. There were two kinds of = solutions to this problem. One was to accept fugitive priests from the = ranks of=20 the Nikonians, and groups which did this became known as the = "Beglopopovtsy."=20 Some of these groups in various regions even eventually obtained bishops = of=20 their own in the nineteenth century. The other solution was to reject = the notion=20 of a true priesthood and to form the community around a lay-priest. = Perhaps the=20 most famous example of such a community was the monastic order at Lake = Vyg,=20 headed by the Denisov Brothers. The Denisovs were responsible for = several=20 influential writings on the dissenting movement, and their community = became an=20 example for many others throughout Western Russia. These groups became = known as=20 the "Bezpopovtsy" (priestless).=20

From those days on to the Revolution of 1917, the Old Believer sects = suffered=20 varying amounts of persecution at the hands of henchmen either of the = Orthodoxy=20 or various Tsars. Under Catherine II, Paul and Alexander I, they were = tolerated=20 and thrived in some areas, but under Peter the Great and Nicholas I, = they often=20 had to flee to outer regions of Russia or to other countries to avoid = death or=20 imprisonment. During the last half of the nineteenth century, the = position of=20 the Orthodox Church softened with regard to the Old Believer question, = and the=20 1909 Council made the first official conciliations by restoring a few of = the=20 decanonized saints which were among the Old Believer favorites and by = 1929 the=20 old anathemas had been officially removed. However, another potent=20 socio-political force came in the Revolution of 1919 and, later, in = Stalin's=20 measures against religious adherents of all stripes.=20

ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF OREGONIAN = STAROVERI

The Staroveri (Old Believers) were originally separated into three = groups:=20 (1) one group migrating to an area around Kuban, Turkey; (2) another = group=20 migrating to an area in Manchuria near Harbin; and (3) the third group = migrating=20 to an area near Kulja and Altai in the Sinkiang Province. Most of the = discussion=20 will be centered around the two groups scattered about in communities in = China:=20 the Harbintsi (Harbin people) and the Sinziantsi (Sinkiang people).=20

Most of the Harbintsi did not meet each other until they came across = the=20 border into China during the Twenties and Thirties. Many of them hailed=20 originally from the vicinity of Moscow and Kiev, their families having = moved out=20 to the east because of the persecutions under Nicholas I (1825-1855). = They=20 settled in the areas of Primorsk, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin and even northern = Japan.=20 Most of them lived in small village communities and either farmed or = operated=20 small-scale industries such as cloth manufacture or flour mills. Some of = them=20 had become fairly well-to-do landholders by the time of the Revolution. = A few=20 male interviewees recall seving in the Tsarist army during the first = World War.=20

It was several years after the dawning of the Revolution before the=20 consequences could be felt as far as the souther reaches of Siberia. = Many of the=20 landholders were victimized by the seizures of property which resulted = from=20 takeovers of vast villages by the Red Army during the last years of = fighting the=20 White Army remnants which were at that time retreating into China, or = from=20 peasant-inspired uprisings in the villages themselves.=20

Most of the Sinziantsi came originally from the Russian-Polish border = area=20 and migrated to the Siberian regions because of persecutions in the = mid-1700's.=20 They settled in the areas of Semipalatinsk, Kamchatka in Kazahstan, and=20 Tashkent. When they decided to move south to escape the Revolution and = later=20 Stalinization of the regions, the Sinkiang Province was the closest = point of=20 entry. Small groups came, mostly by foot, over the Altai Mountains. Some = of them=20 settled near Altai itself (a bitterly cold area), or eventually moved = further=20 south to form villages near Kuldja and Urumchi (in northwestern China, = west of=20 Mongolia). They gradually clustered in the various river valleys of the = region,=20 where they found the soil to be the most fertile. The city of Kuldja was = another=20 center of expatriate Russian population during this time, as many = soldiers and=20 religiously inclined Russians followed the passes down into the Sinkiang = Province during the Twenties and Thirties.=20

For a decade or more, particularly throughout the Thirties, the = Harbintsi and=20 Sinziantsi lived relatively peaceful lives. They farmed primarily on a=20 subsistance basis, and sold wheat and honey to the local urban centers = or to=20 Chinese villages in the area. They also hunted various animals whose = skins or=20 other parts were prized by locals for medicinal or other purposes. The = Harbintsi=20 in particular became famous, to some extent, for their ability to hunt = and=20 capture live tigers to supply zoos in Harbin and nearby cities. Other = commonly=20 hunted animals included boar, bear, elk, squirrel and various birds.=20

Their primary contacts with other people during this time came = through=20 trading or chance meetings with nomads in the area. Some Sinziantsi = communities=20 struck up friendly relations with nomadic Mongol tribes which toured = their=20 regions, and in one case a tribe camped the winter in the Old Believer = village=20 in trade for their animal skins and some meat. They would also hire out = to Old=20 Believers as farm workers for planting in the early spring, before = starting off=20 on their migrations for the summer. The Harbintsi did not have friendly = nomads,=20 but did have occasion to meet with the notorious bandit gangs which = roved=20 northern China at that time. These gangs, often initially formed by = village=20 peasants to protect them against the gnetry of late feudal China, would = resort=20 frequently to sacking villages for supplies and women.=20

However, the Old Believers could hardly have chosen a worse spot to = which to=20 migrate in their attempt to escape the influences of Soviet rule. During = the=20 Thirties and Forties, both the Harbin and Sinkiang regions became the = primary=20 areas of Soviet dominance in their dealings with the fledgling Chinese=20 governments of the period. Additionally, the Japanese overran the = Manchurian=20 region and set up their own government there. These events and their=20 consequences caused the Old Believers plenty of problems.=20

Soviet interests in both the north China and Sinkiang regions were = primarily=20 economic. Historical accounts point to the Soviet use of Port Arthur and = Darien=20 as warm-water ports for the east, their interests in the construction of = railroads throughout the region, and their mining and refining = activities in the=20 northern area of the Sinkiang Province. In Sinkiang, the Soviets = established=20 consulates there by 1924, and when the warlord of the area was = assassinated in=20 1928, the Soviets were quick to move in on his successor to establish a = puppet=20 government there during the Thirties. Harbin served as the center of = Soviet=20 diplomatic activities during the Thirties as well, with a consulate and = a=20 special Russian muncipality established there up to the time of the = Japanese=20 take-over. Up to this point, however, Soviet activities did not often = spread to=20 the rural areas and the Old Believers seem to have been unaffected by = their=20 presence in the cities. The Twenties and Thirties were mostly = characterized as a=20 very peaceful, "free" era, during which the villagers of both the Harbin = and=20 Sinkiang groups were left alone for the most part and simply worked = whatever=20 piece of land in the area took their fancy. They traveled freely and = hunted=20 where they chose. Many of them married people in other villages and = moved there.=20 Most of them had little cause or opportunity to visit nearby towns = unless they=20 were male and wished to trade or sell. They made most of their own = clothing and=20 other implements, with the exception of metal objects.=20

For the Harbins, the first problems arose with the takeover of the = Manchurian=20 region by the Japanese, who in 1932 established the notorious = "Manchukuo"=20 regime. One of the primary early tasks the new government undertook was = the=20 extension of the railroad system, and workers from various provinces = were=20 expropriated for this purpose. Even the Old Believers worked for the = Japanese on=20 the railways. Usually, they were returned to their families without = incident=20 when the work in that area was completed, but stories were told of = individuals=20 being transferred to other projects and never being seen again. There = were also=20 some deaths and injuries from accidents. The work was not done = voluntarily; the=20 individuals involved were rounded up and marched off by Japanese = soldiers for=20 forced labor. The Japanese never reached Sinkiang, so the people there = were=20 largely unaffected by the invasion and the events leading up to World = War II.=20

When the Soviets began to actively aid the Chinese in fighting the = Japanese,=20 the Old Believers found themselves affected in several ways. First, = their=20 villages were occasionally raided by Soviet troops passing through the = area. In=20 Sinkiang, this occurred because some of the settlements were apparently = in the=20 path of a major Soviet overland route for supplying the soldiers at the = front.=20 In Harbin, where much of the fighting was taking place, the villagers = were=20 frequently bystanders on the front itself. Raids on villages usually = were for=20 supplies only. Troops would take the food stores and animals, leaving = the=20 villagers with whatever they could get out of the ground between the = raid and=20 that winter. Occasionally, however, all the men over sixteen or = seventeen would=20 be taken and marched off either to become soldiers or to work on = repairing and=20 extending the railway system, which was also crucial for maintaining the = supplies for troops. Even those whose villages were not hit by the = Soviets=20 encountered difficulties when they ventured near the cities of Harbin or = Mutankiang for supplies, only to find the cities in shambles because of = the war.=20

Sinkiang also had a few battles during the late Thirties and early = Forties,=20 but these came mostly from Mongol and Moslem uprisings, and were = centered around=20 Urumchi. Thus, only an occasional Old Believer had anything to do with = such=20 conflicts. A few of them, however, served in the area's White Army for = short=20 periods of time.=20

As the war progressed, some of the Harbintsi attempted to move = further south=20 in the Manchurian region, hoping thereby to escape Soviet raids and the = ravages=20 of the conflict itself. As they did so, however, they found themselves = in the=20 midst of the so-called "liberated areas" and faced a different problem = in the=20 form of the Draft Agrarian Law of 1947 and its consequences. This law = was the=20 center of a political offensive on the part of the Chinese = revolutionaries in=20 their efforts to attain full control over China, and is principal = purpose was=20 the abolition of the feudal landholding system. Typically, the law was = enforced=20 or implemented through the incitement of peasant uprisings against the = local=20 landlords and gentry by revolutionary cadres. These uprisings, once they = got=20 going in earnest, were often quite violent and many beatings and murders = took=20 place in the name of land reform. Thus, when the movement to expropriate = property gained momentum in their area, various Old Believer villages = came under=20 attack for the possession of "more than their share" of property. This = was=20 somewhat ironic, because the Old Believers did not participate at all in = the=20 Chinese landlord system. In fact, their Mir system of distributing land = among=20 themselves in their own villages closely approximated the Draft Law = ideal of=20 equality in both quantity and quality of land. Nevertheless, the attacks = between=20 1947-1951 in both areas came without warning, were violent, and left the = Old=20 Believers without their property.=20

Another event at the end of World War II which affected the Old = Believers was=20 the Soviet post-war cleanups in both Manchuria and Sinkiang. In = Manchuria, this=20 took the form of a move to dismantle the captured Japanese industrial = centers=20 and ship the parts back to the Soviet Union to aid Soviet rebuilding = efforts in=20 their own country. The Soviets also lacked manpower during this time, = and most=20 of expatriate Russians in the urban centers in northern China were = either=20 persuaded or coerced to join the troops and their technicians in the = march back=20 to the homeland. Some Old Believer villages were again raided during = this time,=20 both in the Harbin and Kuldja regions. This was the time when the = Soviets came=20 in trucks with films and speeches about how wonderful life was in the = Soviet=20 Union and promises that they would be allowed to worship as they wished = when the=20 returned. People who continued to the homeland went there to work on a=20 collective farm and to see their icons and prayer books destroyed.=20

Those that stayed in China began to plan their escape from China. = They did=20 not want to return to Russia and conditions in China were becoming = intolerable=20 for them. Some of them had heard of the United States and Canada and = wished to=20 go there. Getting the documents necessary for that kind of travel proved = difficult, however, because not only were most of the Staroveri = illiterate, but=20 Moscow and Vladivostok held some of those documents and were loathe to = give them=20 up for the purpose of aiding the escape of religious exiles from the = Soviet=20 Union. The consulates in Harbin and Kuldja were not helpful either. In = fact,=20 some Old Believers claim that they or acquaintances of theirs were = jailed for=20 their attempted contacts with the British Consulate in Hong Kong, on = orders from=20 the local Russian consulates in Harbin or Kuldja.=20

In the period 1957-58 the local officials and the people in Hong Kong = suddenly relented and they found themselves with permission to travel to = Hong=20 Kong, thence to prepare for departure to another country. The only event = which=20 seems to hold any possibility of explaining this change in policy is the = visit=20 of Khrushchev to Peking in the mid-50's which coincided with a shake-up = in the=20 Soviet diplomatic corps assigned to China. The consulates at both Kuldja = and=20 Harbin were replaced in 1954, with the Harbin consulate being replaced = again in=20 1957.=20

In any event, the remaining Old Believers from Manchuria and Sinkiang = traveled to Hong Kong around 1958-59. Some of them had escaped in the = mid-50's,=20 usually making their way by hired truck, foot or horseback to the = nearest train=20 station where they could safely board a train to either Shanghai or Hong = Kong.=20 Most of them, however, even when they escaped illegally, wound up in = Hong Kong=20 about the same time their legitimate brethren did, in 1958-59.=20

There, the Old Believers from Manchuria and Sinkiang met for the = first time.=20 The Red Cross and the United World Council of Churches assisted both = groups=20 while they were in Hong Kong, putting them up in hotels and arranging = for their=20 passage to a new country. Most of them spent months in the city while = the=20 consulates debated their fates. They were enjoined not to work while = they were=20 there, but some of them found short-term jobs anyway. The majority of = them had=20 been forced to give up all they owned in the way of valuables in order = to make=20 the trip, and they were understandably insecure without some money or = belongings=20 of their own, despite the assurances of the charitable organizations = that their=20 needs would be provided for. In all, out of the uncounted thousands of = Old=20 Believers who apparently at one time populated the rural areas of = northern China=20 and Sinkiang, less than 1,000 made it to Hong Kong. Some of the families = claim=20 to be the only ones from their entire village who made it out of China = without=20 going back to the Soviet Union.=20

In Hong Kong, they were given several choices among the countries to = which=20 they could go: Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and = Uruguay.=20 The largest groups went eventually to Brazil and Australia, with smaller = groups=20 ending up in the other countries. To date, there are still some Old = Believers=20 left in each of those nations.=20

OLD BELIEVERS IN BRAZIL


Our narrative narrows at this point to those Old Believers who went = to=20 Brazil. The number which arrived there seems to have been near 200 or = even more.=20 There were apparently two boatloads of them, one of which went to Brazil = by way=20 of Los Angeles and the other which headed in the opposite direction by = plane,=20 eventually passing through Rome and then taking a boat from Italy. The = group=20 which stopped in Lost Angeles found their arrival heralded by the = American=20 newspaper Novoye Slovo (The New Word), and they were met by some = Molokans who=20 resided at that time in the city. These Molokans were members of another = conservative sect from the days of the Schism of 1653, and this = particular group=20 had immigrated to the United States in the early Twenties. Some of their = relatives had moved to central Oregon and were farming in the Willamette = Valley=20 near Salem and Woodburn. In the course of conversations between the = members of=20 these two groups, the Molokan hosts told their Old Believer guests about = the=20 productive farmland and peaceful countryside their relatives had written = them=20 about in "Voodburn." It was this name that the Old Believers were later = to give=20 their American sponsors when asked in what part of the country they = would like=20 to settle.=20

The majority of the Old Believers arrived in Brazil in 1959-61. They = had been=20 provided with land by the United World Council of Churches, and this=20 organization further promised to provide them with the means and = assistance=20 necessary to get them started in farming their land. The Sinziantsi and=20 Harbintsi requested to be settled on separate pieces of land, despite = their=20 friendly acquaintance during their stay in Hong Kong. This factional = loyalty=20 showed up in family lines as well. Within each of the two groups, small = viallges=20 were formed principally on the basis of family membership or village = alliances=20 as they had existed back in China. Both groups were settled nearby each = other,=20 about eight miles or so from the nearby town of Ponta Grossa, in the = state of=20 Parana. The Harbin group split into three villages, with the Sinziantsi = forming=20 five.=20

Life in Brazil appears to have been difficult from the start. The = soil and=20 climatic conditions were vastly different from anything the Old = Believers had=20 known. They were used to fertile deposits from the river valleys of = China's=20 northlands, a cold winter and temperate summer. This was the kind of = climate=20 they had known in Russia also. In Brazil, the soil was barren and the = climate=20 dry and hot, except for seasonal torrents of rain which washed uselessly = over=20 the land and quickly evaporated in the sun. Several of them told of = first=20 harvests which were total losses, which no food to eat for the coming = rainy=20 season and no seed to plant the next time. They had to borrow money from = the=20 banks in Ponta Grossa for machinery and fertilizers without which they = were told=20 they would not be able to farm there. They began growing rice and = watermelons=20 for cash crops, because they had been informed by the locals that there = were=20 outlets for those products in Ponta Grossa and they grew well in the = soil of=20 that region.=20

Unfortunately, although many of the Old Believers became proficient = farmers=20 under those conditions by the second or third year of their stay there, = two=20 factors prevented all but a few from making a livelihood of their work. = One of=20 these was the depressed state of the local economy and the fact that = there was=20 not enough of an outlet to provide sales for all the rice that the = Russians=20 would produce. Thus, they found that during good harvest years, the = market would=20 quickly become glutted and the prices would fall so drastically that = only a few=20 could make any money at all. One way which some individuals tried to=20 circumnavigate this difficulty was by hoarding as much rice as they = could until=20 the market had unfrozen, and then strategically leaking their supply = onto the=20 market to cash in on the resultant price increases. Other considered = this=20 dishonest, but competed for the purchase of land from indebted brethren = so that=20 they could absorb their losses through multiple or even staggered = harvests. The=20 end result of this system of "free enterprise" under restricted market=20 conditions was a fierce competition between Old Believers which began to = undermine community solidarity and in a few instances caused some = violent=20 feuding among families or village groups.=20

The second factor which intervened between the Old Believers efforts = and the=20 prospects of a decent living was the highly corrupted local system of = government=20 and the tax system in particular. It was common for an Old Believer, = driving his=20 produce to market, to be stopped by a man in the road who posed as a tax = collector. This man would overestimate the amount of produce and charge = taxes=20 accordingly. He would then pocket the money and provide the farmer with = no=20 receipt or document of the "transaction," thus leaving him open for the = next man=20 in the road. Tax collectors also frequented the pubic marketplaces and = streets=20 of Ponta Grossa, so that an individual farmer coming into town for a day = of=20 selling and trading could have taxes charged as many as four or five = times. One=20 protective (aside, perhaps, from learning to swear effectively in = Portuguese)=20 adopted by some of the Old Believers was to take their produce to the = local=20 governor and hve him or a deputy sign a paper indicating that the bearer = had=20 paid his taxes for that load in full. However, this took time and was = not always=20 dependable, since the appropriate officials might not be available at = the time=20 the farmer came to call.=20

Once again, the literate among the Old Believers began appealing for=20 assistance from various nations. It was obvious to them that they could = not make=20 a living for themselves in Brazil. Many of the families were already = heavily=20 indebted to the banks, and a few of them were close to starving. Even = the=20 relatively well-to-do were not secure in their comparative wealth, for a = couple=20 of disastrous crops could bring them down as well.=20

The Tolstoy Foundation in New York found out about the group, and = agreed to=20 sponsor the majority of them in a move to the United States. A few other = Old=20 Believers were sponsored by acquaintances of theirs from days in China = who had=20 already moved to the United States and become citizens. Most of them = began their=20 migration in the mid-60's, from about 1964 to 1969. They moved when they = could=20 afford to pay at least part of their plane fare and still have a small = savings=20 to tide them over in America while they searched for work. Of those who = made the=20 move, most of them came to Oregon, beginning in the early Sixties. A = handful of=20 families went to New York where their sponsors were, but most of these=20 eventually came out to Oregon to join the others. Some remained in = Brazil and=20 are there to this day, but have moved to another location at Mato = Grossa. Some=20 say that all of the remaining Old Believers in Brazil would like to come = here=20 but are too poor to manage it, while others have indicated that some of = them=20 have become well-to-do there and enjoy their lives.=20

While the Tolstoy Foundation was making arrangements with the = Russians in=20 Brazil for their migration to the United States, the plight of another = group in=20 Turkey came to their attention. Through a series of misfortunes, this=20 community's numbers had been reduced to the point that they could no = longer=20 support themselves nor could they provide sufficient marriage partners = within=20 their own group. The Tolstoy Foundation advised them to come to America = and live=20 with the Old Believers who were arriving from Brazil. This community = came all=20 together in 1963, consisting of 60 households with 250 individuals all = told.=20 They were settled at first in New Jersey and for a time were scattered = around=20 that area so that they could not continue their existence as a = community, but=20 after a couple of years, they managed to move out to Oregon, where they = settled=20 on a large plot of land near Gervais, which they had collectively = purchased.=20 This has since become known to the community at large as "Turkish = Village."=20 Although this group was found to be coreligious with the Brazilian Old = Believers=20 in a joint council meeting (sobor) held between the two groups, = relations were=20 slow in building between them for a few years. To this day, there is = some=20 prejudice among the Sinziantsi, Harbintsi and Turtiantsi against one = another,=20 even though by now there has been plenty of intermarriage among the = three=20 groups.=20

The Brazilians never did get the money or the land together to = purchase a=20 large plot on which to establish a village. When the first families = arrived in=20 Oregon, they had large degts to pay the airline companies and banks in = Brazil=20 for past loans. Furthermore, they had to send money back to = less-well-off=20 relatives who wanted to make the trip to America as well. Lack of = proficiency in=20 English and the absence of "marketable" job skills for all but a very = few meant=20 that they had to compete with the local Chicano (Mexican) population for = the=20 farm labor jobs. They did so successfully, but at the cost of any = amiable=20 relations with the Mexicans.=20

LIFE IN AMERICA

As several years passed by and some of the families began to = establish firm=20 financial footing for themselves, another problem drew their attention. = Young=20 people in the community, through a combination of influences from = American=20 schools and society and the restrictiveness of the Staroveri traditions, = were=20 beginning to fall away from the old ways. A few community elders viewed = the=20 situation with sufficient alarm that they began seriously considering = other more=20 isolated locations for their parishes. One of them latched onto the = information=20 that government land was available in the Kenai Peninsula area of = Alaska, where=20 the fishing was reputed to be outstanding. After initial investigations = by four=20 men, five families moved up to a jointly purchased section of land (640 = acres)=20 and began building a community there in the summer of 1968.=20

During the first summer, the families camped in tents on an "oil = pan," which=20 is a bed of gravel about a hundred yards in diameter, originally laid = down in=20 preparation for drilling on the spot. The men began constructing an = access road=20 to their village from the nearby roads leading inland from Anchor Point. = They=20 then began laying out the plan for the village itself, and logged out an = area=20 for it in the spruce forest. From the wood they cut, they built the = first five=20 cabins of the village, put in power lines by the next summer and were = able to=20 spend the first winter there. There was a tent fire, in which one girl = was=20 burned to death and her mother scarred for life. Some of the families = which came=20 later were unable to withstand the cold winters and had to return to = Oregon.=20

However, the majority prevailed and the village continued to grow = each year,=20 with the population stabilizing to some extent in 1974 or so. Most of = the men=20 have found work as commercial fishermen or construction workers, while = the=20 majority of the women work at a cannery in nearby Homer. By the second = year, the=20 homes had running water and electricity. Some of the men constructed = their own=20 fishing boats after working at a Homer marina where they learned the = trade. They=20 set up their own shop in the village by 1972. When the growing season in = the=20 Alaskan summers proved too short for the production of various favorite=20 vegetables, the Old Believers built greenhouses with wood-fueled stoves = in them=20 to extend the season. In 1974-75, through the cooperative efforts of = retired=20 Army Brig. Gen. B.B. Talley, some 59 Old Believers prepared for and = successfully=20 obtained American citizenship. On June 19, 1975, a ceremony for their=20 naturalization took place in the Anchor Point School gymnasium, with = Judge James=20 A.. von der Heydt presiding.=20

Although some of the Russians in Oregon were encouraged by reports of = events=20 in Alaska, they did not want to move there themselves, even though they = wished=20 to find a more isolated spot in which to live and raise their children. = Reasons=20 commonly given among the Oregonians included the harshness of the = climate, the=20 lack of available fishing permits and the inability of the Alaskans to = farm for=20 money because of the long winters. Thus, 45 individuals purchased a = quarter=20 section of land near the Alaskan settlement, but after further = consideration of=20 the matter, gave up the notion of settling there and resold the land.=20

One other colony has been established as of about 1973 in Canada, = near=20 Edmonton, Alberta. This community currently houses some 20 families, = primarily=20 of the Harbintsi, although several Sinziantsi indicated that their = relatives or=20 friends had also purchased land up there and were planning to move in = the near=20 future.=20

RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES AND VIEWS

Religion is clearly central to the Old Believer society and world = view. It=20 permeates virtually every major portion of their social and inner lives. = They=20 base their interpretations of the Word of God on a number of books which = tell=20 them in considerable detail how to live for virtually each day of the = year. An=20 adult Old Believer is above all conscious of the immense number of rules = which=20 must be observed in every waking moment. Some of the more prominent = among these=20 rules will be referred to in conjunction with work, eating and dress. In = order=20 to understand the books, the Old Believer must be able to read Church = Slavonic,=20 the dialect in which the Bible was translated by Cyril and Methodius for = their=20 missionary work in Moravia in the mid-800's. Included in these books are = such=20 comprehensive rule-systems as the Canonical Laws formulated in the Seven = Ecumenical Councils from 325 to 787 in Nicea.=20

Among these laws are those which regulate the observance of the Holy = Days and=20 the four Lents which are to be observed each year. The Old Believers use = the=20 Julian calendar for the reckoning of their dates, so that, for example, = their=20 Christmas and Easter are always out of phase with our own (by thirteen = days).=20 Holy days are usually marked by special services which begin late at = night and=20 continue on through the eary hours of the morning. Ordinarily, there is = an=20 evening service each weekday beginning at 5:00 and and ending at about = 9:00, and=20 then a longer service on Sundays which may run from about 1:00 A.M. = until=20 8:00-10:00 in the morning. Since there are some thirty-eight Holy Days = which may=20 be celebrated thus, the Old Believers spend many days out of the year in = church=20 for at least a few hours each day.=20

Churches in Oregon have often consisted of the elder's home (or that = of a=20 relative) which is large enough to be used for the purpose. Only two of = the six=20 operable church districts in Oregon have church buildings as such. = Apparently,=20 this was also often the case back in Brazil and China. Although the = buildings=20 are typically unadorned on the outside, they are heavily decorated on = the=20 interiors. In addition to embroidered hangings on the walls, there are = various=20 icons, some of which reputedly date as far back as the Seventeenth = Century. Most=20 of them are cast from bronze and then enameled according to strict rules = of=20 iconography, while others are painted in an egg-tempera-based paint on = specially=20 gessoed board. The churches usually have a simple layout, consisting of = a large=20 standing area in the center of the floor for the worshippers, who must = stand=20 through most of the services. At the front is an altar and repository = for the=20 service books and other necessities for the conducting of services. The = altar=20 and the shelves above it which house the icons also are laden with = beeswax=20 candles made by qualified older community members. These are kept = burning=20 throughout the service. Near the front of the room is a stand which can = be moved=20 to the center of the floor when necessary, and which holds the book of = hymns and=20 chants used by the Old Believers.=20

The service itself features four individuals: the nastayatyel, the = ustavnik,=20 the naspevnik and the pomoshnik. The nastayatyel is the elder of the = church=20 districts, which is the primary governmental unit above that of the = family in=20 Old Believer society. There is no higher authority than this position, = although=20 it does not include with it much in the way of power over others' = affairs. The=20 nastayatyel is primarily the presiding head over church services, and he = also=20 has the additional function of an ad hoc canonical lawyer. The ustavnik = is also=20 a law keeper of sorts, as it is his job to keep track of the forms which = the=20 service must take according to the books. The naspevnik is the cantor, = and leads=20 the hymnal singing and chants. The pomoshnik is an assistant to the = elder. In=20 recent years, the nastayatyel has been increasingly called on to = administer=20 punishments and other forms of discipline to miscreant young people. = These=20 punishments usually consist of a public announcement of the individual's = sins to=20 the congregation at the end of the service, whereupon the transgressors = may be=20 compelled to perform several prostrations before the congregation, or = some other=20 act of contrition and penance.=20

There are several aspects of the services which should be = particularly noted.=20 First, the congregation stands during the entire service, except for = certain=20 times when they are to prostrate themselves on the floor. Children are = expected=20 to do this along with the adults, although the very young may be excused = to go=20 to the bathroom or to step outside. Babies are usually laid to rest in a = back=20 room, and mothers may leave periodically to check in on them. The men = stand as a=20 group in front of the women, and they participate much more actively in = the=20 services than do the women.=20

Most of the service consists of readings aloud from appropriate texts = for the=20 hour, with the readings being done by men as appointed during the = service by the=20 nastayatyel. Often, a young man who is just getting the hang of the = Slavonic=20 will suddenly find the finger pointed at him, and with a shove from his = father=20 or an uncle, he is belly-up against a prayer book and has to begin = reading, lest=20 the continuity of the service be broken. Readers who err are usually = quietly=20 prompted or corrected by knowledgeable members of the congregation. The = chanting=20 or hymns of the Staroveri are sung only by the men during the services. = They=20 have their historical and musical roots firmly embedded in the Byzantine = chant=20 of Tenth Century vintage. The pitch is relative rather than absolute, = but the=20 scale consists of 12 notes lying roughly in the tenor register. The = hymns often=20 contain two closely harmonized parts, with intervals consisting mostly = of major=20 and minor thirds and fifths.=20

Church-related ceremonies and sacraments mark various important parts = of the=20 individual's life cycle, in addition to the variety of Holy Days and = fasts. At=20 birth, the primary event is the christening. First, the baby is to be = delivered=20 by an individual who is among the faithful, which makes many Old = Believers=20 understandably resistant to the idea of having their babies delivered in = hospitals. There are several Old Believer midwives who were educated by = older=20 female relatives, and they usually perform this service for the = expectant=20 mothers. Another reason given for the home deliveries is that, in the = event of=20 complications with the birth, the baby can be christened then and there, = for it=20 is believed that an unchristened baby will not see the face of God.=20

If there are no complications, the baby is usually christened within = eight=20 days after its birth. The ceremony is usually performed on a Holy Day or = Sunday,=20 whichever appears within the eight-day limit and is the most convenient. = A name=20 is chosen for the baby from a list of Saints' days, and there is a Saint = for=20 nearly every day of the year. The parents choose the most suitable name = from=20 within the eight-day period. In the baptismal ceremony, the nastayatyel = dips the=20 head of the infant in a large container of water and prays over it, = names it and=20 then hands the baby to a waiting godparent, who then dresses it with the = nastayatyel. The two items of clothing which are crucial in this = instance are=20 the woven belt and a cross on a chain or thong, which is placed around = the=20 baby's neck. The belt is not to come off except for bathing, and the = cross is=20 not to come of at all except perhaps in the event a longer chain is = needed when=20 the individual grows up.=20

The acquisition of godparents is an important event also. Godparents = are=20 enjoined to teach the child right and wrong and to consider themselves=20 responsible for the child on the same level as the child's biological = parents.=20 The godfather in particular is to serve as a father-confessor to the = godchild,=20 and the child is instructed later in life to confess all his sins to the = godfather at least during each Lenten period. Many of the Old Believers = refer to=20 their godparents as "relatives," or even state that they were "related" = to those=20 families containing the godparents of siblings. Further, there is a = marriage=20 taboo which forbids the child to marry a member of the godparents' = families.=20

The day of the Saint for whom the child is named becomes the name-day = of the=20 child, and this is used for the yearly celebration of that individual's = birth,=20 much as the American-European birthday is observed. On the morning of or = the=20 evening before the name-day, the family of the child (or adult) gives = out treats=20 to their friends in honor of the individual. These friends then say a = special=20 prayer for that person along with the rest of their day's prayers. If a = name-day=20 falls on a Sunday or major Holy Day, then the person may take a beeswax = candle=20 to church, and the congregation will say a prayer for her.=20

In the home, every meal and even the preparation of various foods and = other=20 household tasks must be blessed. In a prominent corner of the front room = of each=20 Old Believer home stands a small altar with the family icon sitting in a = small=20 shelter, curtained with an embroidered covering. Whenever a visiting Old = Believer enters the home, he is ordinarily to bow three times from the = waist=20 before the icon (which is usually at about eye-level) and say a prayer = which=20 translates approximately: "O God be merciful to me, a sinner. You, O = Lord who=20 created me, have mercy on me. I have sinned without number, O Lord, have = mercy=20 on me and forgive me, a sinner." The entering person usually does this = before=20 even greeting the individuals whom he has come to visit. This obeisance = is also=20 the first act performed upon entering a church.=20

THE WEDDING

Another momentous occasion is the wedding. Secular elements enter = into this=20 ceremony and its preparations perhaps more than any other, but even it = is=20 heavily marked with ceremony and ritual. In courtship, the man = traditionally=20 takes the initiative. Thus, it is the young man who decides on a woman = he wants=20 to marry. When he has made the decision, he tells his parents and they = come over=20 with him to the prospective bride's house. If all goes well and the = marriage is=20 determined acceptable, then the two sets of parents discuss the = arrangements=20 while the man and woman pass the time in another room, chaperoned = usually by the=20 woman's best friend. The bride is then taken aside by an aunt or older = female=20 relative from both the man's family and her own, and is asked whether = she wants=20 to marry the man. If she says yes, then the announcement is made to the = "man"=20 (the nastayatyel) that the couple intends to be married.=20

The nastayatyel then arrives at the bride's home, and there presides = while=20 the couple kneels before the icon and a lit candle, praying together. = The=20 nastayatyel then asks each of them in turn whether they wish to be = married of=20 their own free will. If either answers no at this point, then the = marriage does=20 not proceed. If they answer yes, then they exchange gifts before the = nastayatyel=20 and both sets of parents. The man traditionally gives either money or, = in=20 earlier years, animals and grain. The woman presents the man with her = favorite=20 belt. They are then officially engaged and a dinner is brought from the = man's=20 parents home to the house of the bride, where the two families eat = together.=20

On the same day after the engagement, preparations are begun for the = wedding=20 ceremony and feast. Because these feasts are meant to be elaborate and = rich,=20 they cannot be held on any of the fast days or during the Lenten = periods. This=20 tends to make the wedding a seasonal phenomenon, with the greatest = number=20 tending to occur just before the seven-week Easter Lent. The groom's = family=20 prepares a variety of foods and makes sure that they have plenty of = "braga" (a=20 home-made Old Believer wine-like drink, usually made from berries). In = the=20 meantime, the bride invites her friends to a small party to make the = "krosota"=20 (wedding cap) which consists of small bows of colorful material, and a = large bow=20 in the back with ribbons which trail to midway between the knee and = ankle. One=20 of the friends is chosen to be a "podruga" (somewhat akin to the = bridesmaid),=20 and this person then assists the bride in various wedding preparations. = These=20 may include the sewing and embroidering of various garments and the = trousseau,=20 if that has not been taken care of in earlier years by the bride = herself.=20

At this point, the "divichnik" begins. This is a period of anywhere = from two=20 days to three weeks, during which there are parties each evening for the = bride=20 at her home. Various friends of the bride and groom who are themselves = still=20 single come to the house and sit around a long table and eat, drink, and = the=20 women sing songs for which the men pay them with money and/or kisses = (mostly the=20 latter). They may carry on this way for long hours, as late as 2:00 in = the=20 morning.